Gender Egalitarianism and Work–Life Balance for Managers: Multisource Perspectives in 36 Countries
Corresponding Author
Karen S. Lyness
Baruch College & Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
Address for correspondence: Karen S. Lyness, Department of Psychology, Baruch College, City University of New York, 55 Lexington Avenue, Box B 8-215, New York 10010-5585, USA. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Karen S. Lyness
Baruch College & Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
Address for correspondence: Karen S. Lyness, Department of Psychology, Baruch College, City University of New York, 55 Lexington Avenue, Box B 8-215, New York 10010-5585, USA. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Work–life balance has important implications for both personal well-being and work-related outcomes. This study investigated gender differences in multisource ratings of work–life balance, based on self-reports and supervisors' appraisals of 40,921 managers in 36 countries. Based on a combination of theoretical ideas from social role theory (Eagly & Wood, 2012), prior work–life literature, and gender egalitarianism as a cultural dimension related to societal gender roles, the study tested gender egalitarianism as a moderator of cross-national variations in these gender differences. Based on multilevel (HLM) analyses, results showed more cross-national variation by ratee gender in supervisors' appraisals than self-reports, suggesting that supervisors' perceptions reflected greater influence of societal gender stereotypes. Supervisors rated women lower in work–life balance than men in low egalitarian countries, but similar to men in high egalitarian countries, and only appraisals of women varied depending on egalitarian context. Country gender egalitarian values explained the majority of variation in supervisors' appraisals of women's work–life balance, whereas women's self-reported balance was linked to objective gender inequalities. Taken together, the findings show that supervisors' perceptions of employees' work–life balance differed by ratee gender and country context, with important implications for work–life theory and practical implications for global employers.
References
- Aryee, S., Srinivas, E.S., & Tan, H.H. (2005). Rhythms of life: Antecedents and outcomes of work–family balance in employed parents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 132–146.
- Aycan, Z. (2008). Cross-cultural approaches to work–farnily conflict. In K. Korabik, D.S. Lero, & D.L. Whitehead (Eds.), Handbook of work–family integration: Research, theory, and best practices (pp. 353–370). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
- Carlson, D., Witt, L., Zivnuska, S., Kacmar, K., & Grzywacz, J. (2008). Supervisor appraisal as the link between family–work balance and contextual performance. Journal of Business & Psychology, 23, 37–49.
- Center for Creative Leadership (2004). Benchmarks Facilitators Manual, Version 3.0. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
- Center for Creative Leadership (2010). Benchmarks Technical Manual, Version 1.0. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
- Crompton, R., & Lyonette, C. (2006). Work–life “balance” in Europe. Acta Sociologica, 49, 379–393.
- Dipboye, R.L. (1985). Some neglected variables in research on discrimination in appraisals. Academy of Management Review, 10, 116–127.
- Eagly, A.H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
-
Eagly, A.H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P.A.M. Van Lange, A.W. Kruglanski, & E.T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458–476). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.4135/9781446249222.n49 Google Scholar
- Eby, L.T., Casper, W.J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (1980–2002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 124–197.
- Emrich, C.G., Denmark, F.L., & Den Hartog, D.N. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism: Implications for societies, organizations, and leaders. In R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 343–394). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Fiske, S., & Berdahl, J.L. (2007). Social power. In E.T. Higgins & A.W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 678–692). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Fortin, N.M. (2005). Gender role attitudes and the labour-market outcomes of women across OECD countries. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 21, 416–438.
-
Frone, M.R. (2003). Work–family balance. In J.C. Quick & L.E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
10.1037/10474-007 Google Scholar
- Goode, W.J. (1960). A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review, 25, 483–496.
- Goyal, M. (2011). Indian women most stressed in the world: Nielsen survey [ET Cetera], from http://search.proquest.com/docview/873955235?accountid=8500
- Greenhaus, J.H., & Allen, T.D. (2011). Work–family balance: A review and extension of the literature. In J.C. Quick & L.E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology ( 2nd edn., pp. 165–183). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Guest, D.E. (2002). Perspectives on the study of work–life balance. Social Science Information, 41, 255–279.
- Gupta, V., & Hanges, P.J. (2004). Regional and climate clustering of societal cultures. In R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 178–218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Heilman, M.E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 657–674.
- Hill, E.J., Hawkins, A.J., Ferris, M., & Weitzman, M. (2001). Finding an extra day a week: The positive influence of perceived job flexibility on work and family life balance. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 50, 49–58.
-
Hill, E.J., Hawkins, A.J., Martinson, V., & Ferris, M. (2003). Studying “working fathers”: Comparing fathers' and mothers' work–family conflict, fit, and adaptive strategies in a global high-tech company. Fathering, 1, 239–261.
10.3149/fth.0103.239 Google Scholar
- Hofmann, D.A., & Gavin, M.B. (1998). Centering decisions in hierarchical linear models: Implications for research in organizations. Journal of Management, 24, 623–641.
- Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values (Vol. 5). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
- Hoobler, J.M., Wayne, S.J., & Lemmon, G. (2009). Bosses' perceptions of family–work conflict and women's promotability: Glass ceiling effects. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 939–957.
- R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.) (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- House, R.J., & Javidan, M. (2004). Overview of GLOBE. In R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Javidan, M., House, R.J., & Dorfman, P.W. (2004). A nontechnical summary of GLOBE findings. In R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 29–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Kanter, R.M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965–990.
- LeBreton, J.M., & Senter, J.L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11(4), 815–852.
- Lero, D.S., & Lewis, S. (2008). Assumptions, research gaps and emerging issues: Implications for research, policy and practice. In K. Korabik, D.S. Lero, & D.L. Whitehead (Eds.), Handbook of work–family integration: Research, theory, and best practices (pp. 371–397). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
- Lewis, J., & Campbell, M. (2008). What's in a name? “Work and family” or “work and life” balance policies in the UK since 1997 and the implications for the pursuit of gender equality. Social Policy & Administration, 42, 524–541.
- Lyness, K.S., & Heilman, M.E. (2006). When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 777–785.
- Lyness, K.S., & Judiesch, M.K. (2008). Can a manager have a life and a career? International and multisource perspectives on work–life balance and career advancement potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 789–805.
- Lyness, K.S., & Kropf, M.B. (2005). The relationships of national gender equality and organizational support with work–family balance: A study of European managers. Human Relations, 58, 33–60.
-
McDaniel, A.E. (2008). Measuring gender egalitarianism: The attitudinal difference between men and women. International Journal of Sociology, 38, 58–80.
10.2753/IJS0020-7659380103 Google Scholar
- MacDermid, S.M. (2005). ( Re)Considering conflict between work and family. In E.E. Kossek & S.J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and individual perspectives (pp. 19–40). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Marks, S.R., & MacDermid, S.M. (1996). Multiple roles and the self: A theory of role balance. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 417–432.
- Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (2012, 12 July). Work–life balance: Tips to reclaim control. Retrieved 21 September 2012 from: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/work-life-balance/WL00056
- Pazy, A., & Oron, I. (2001). Sex proportion and performance evaluation among high-ranking military officers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 689–702.
- Preacher, K.J., Curran, P.J., & Bauer, D.J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interaction effects in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448.
- Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A.S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods ( 2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., Cheong, Y.F., Congdon, R., & du Toit, M. (2004). HLM 6: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.
- Ronen, S., & Shenkar, O. (1985). Clustering countries on attitudinal dimensions: A review and synthesis. Academy of Management Review, 10, 435–454.
- Rothbard, N.P. (2001). Enriching or depleting? The dynamics of engagement in work and family roles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 655–684.
- Seguino, S. (2007). Plus ça change? Evidence on global trends in gender norms and stereotypes. Feminist Economics, 13, 1–28.
- Spangler, M. (2003). Review of the Benchmarks (Revised). In B.S. Plake, J.C. Impara, & R.A. Spies (Eds.), The fifteenth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 124–126). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
- Taras, V., Rowney, J., & Steel, P. (2009). Half a century of measuring culture: Review of approaches, challenges, and limitations based on the analysis of 121 instruments for quantifying culture. Journal of International Management, 15, 357–373.
-
Tausig, M., & Fenwick, R. (2001). Unbinding time: Alternate work schedules and work–life balance. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 22, 101–119.
10.1023/A:1016626028720 Google Scholar
- Treas, J., & Tai, T.-o. (2012). Apron strings of working mothers: Maternal employment and housework in cross-national perspective. Social Science Research, 41, 833–842.
- Treas, J., & Widmer, E.D. (2000). Marrried women's employment over the life course: Attitudes in cross-national perspective. Social Forces, 78, 1409–1436.
- United Nations Development Programme (2010). Human Development Report 2010: The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
- van der Lippe, T., Jager, A., & Kops, Y. (2006). Combination pressure: The paid work–family balance of women and men in European countries. Acta Sociologica, 49, 303–319.
-
Wada, M., Backman, C.L., & Forwell, S.J. (2010). Theoretical perspectives of balance and the influence of gender ideologies. Journal of Occupational Science, 17, 92–103.
10.1080/14427591.2010.9686680 Google Scholar
-
Wernet, C.A., Elman, C., & Pendleton, B.F. (2005). The postmodern individual: Structural determinants of attitudes. Comparative Sociology, 4, 339–364.
10.1163/156913305775010151 Google Scholar
- Wood, W., & Eagly, A.H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 699–727.
- Wood, W., & Eagly, A.H. (2010). Gender. In S.T. Fiske, D.T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, 5th edn., pp. 629–667). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
- World Values Survey 1981–2008 Official Aggregate v.20090901 (2009). World Values Survey Association (www.worldvaluessurvey.org ) Aggregate File Producer: ASEP/JDS. Retrieved 1 September 2012 from: http://www.wvsevsdb.com/wvs/WVSData.jsp
- Yoder, J.D. (1991). Rethinking tokenism: Looking beyond numbers. Gender and Society, 5, 178–192.
- Yoder, J.D. (1994). Looking beyond numbers: The effects of gender status, job prestige, and occupational gender-typing on tokenism processes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57, 150–159.
- Zedeck, S. (1995). Benchmarks. In J.C. Conoley, J.C. Impara, & L.L. Murphey (Eds.), The twelfth mental measurements yearbook. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.